The common framing of this problem is wrong in a way that matters for anyone reviewing the spec. The claim is usually stated as: an attacker holding retired validator keys can build an alternative chain and rewrite history for a freshly...
The phrase “5-of-9 multisig” is doing a lot of work in bridge discussions. It sounds like a Gnosis Safe: nine signers, five signatures, each signer inspects calldata in a wallet UI and clicks confirm. That mental model is wrong for most...
The Fiat-Shamir transform is the standard method for turning an interactive public-coin proof into a non-interactive one. It replaces the verifier’s random challenge with the output of a hash function evaluated over a transcript. The security of the resulting proof depends...